What is Information Processing Theory? Stages, Models & Limitations for 2026
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Technology has advanced over the decades, taking us to today’s information age. Now, modern operations and solutions have become driven by information and communication technologies. In fact, data creation, usage, distribution, and manipulation have become critical in various industries. These are considered transformative elements that influence outcomes, strategies, performance, and returns of institutions.
With this, it is important to be aware of how information is processed and consumed. The information processing theory describes how individuals record, store, and retrieve information in their brains. This affects the motivation and the behavior of a person (Hann et al., 2007). Consequently, the actions and behavior of individuals influence society as a whole.
This article defines information processing theory, its elements and origins, based on current literature. It also discusses the information processing approach in context of intellectual development, existing models that expound on the theory, its limitations, and some of its organizational benefits. After reading the article, the reader should have an idea of how people process information, its implications, and why applying its approaches comes as a worthwhile psychology career option.
Information Processing Theory Table of Contents
- What is Information Processing Theory?
- Models of Information Processing Theory
- How Can Information Processing Theory Enhance Online Learning Environments?
- What Are the Career and Research Opportunities Enabled by Information Processing Theory?
- How Does Information Processing Theory Impact Career Certification and Skill Development?
- How Can Information Processing Theory Shape High-Paying Careers?
- How Can Information Processing Theory Support Lifelong Learning and Rapid Career Development?
- What Are the Ethical Implications of Information Processing in the Digital Age?
- How Does Information Processing Theory Compare with Alternative Cognitive Theories?
- Limitations of Information Processing Theory
- Organizational Benefits of Information Processing Theory
- Practical Applications of Information Processing Theory
- Future Implications of Information Processing Theory in Education
What is Information Processing Theory?
Information processing theory is an approach to cognitive development studies that aims to explain how information is encoded into memory. It is based on the idea that humans do not merely respond to stimuli from the environment. Instead, humans process the information they receive, which is also the reason why unique names for business tend to have better recall. While experts believe that the brain’s mechanisms and functions are relatively simple, the magnitude and scope of neural networks and their behaviors are quite powerful as a whole (Wang, Liu, & Wang, 2003).
These include how the brain processes information. Primary research definition not only explains how information is captured but how it is stored and retrieved as well. The process begins with receiving input, also called stimulus, from the environment using various senses. The input is then described and stored in the memory, which is retrieved when needed. The mind or the brain is likened to a computer that is capable of analyzing information from the environment. Even at a young age, a person can amass and store significant volumes of information, as seen in the information processing theory child development.
Consequently, information processing affects a person’s behavior (Hann, Hui, Lee, & Png, 2007). In the expectancy theory of motivation, an individual processes information about behavior-outcome relationships. Then, they can form expectations based on the information and make decisions, thus underscoring what is information processing in psychology and its significance.
Origins of Information Processing Theory
George Armitage Miller was the first to put forth the idea of the theory of information processing. He was one of the original founders of cognition studies in psychology and considered a progenitor of the information processing model in psychology. His studies are based on Edward C. Tolman’s sign and latent learning theories, which propose that learning is an internal and complex process which involves mental processes (Çeliköz, Erisen, & Sahin, 2019).
Miller discovered the capacity of the working memory, which can generally hold up to seven plus or minus two items. Additionally, he coined the term “chunking" when describing the functionalities of short-term memory.
Aside from Miller, John William Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin are also associated with the information processing approach in cognitive psychology. The Cognitive Information Processing Theory refers to the proposed multi-stage theory of memory, which is one of the leading models of information processing theory (Sala, 2007).
Two other psychologists, Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch made significant contributions to the information processing theory in psychology through their own studies. They presented a more in-depth information processing model of memory with various stages, such as visuospatial sketch pad, phonological loop, and central executive (Baddeley, 2006).
Elements of Information Processing Theory
While major models of information processing theory vary, they are mostly composed of three main elements (Çeliköz, Erisen, & Sahin, 2019):
- Information stores The different places in the mind where information is stored, such as sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, semantic memory, episodic memory, and more.
- Cognitive processes The various processes that transfer memory among different memory stores. Some of the processes include perception, coding, recording, chunking, and retrieval.
- Executive cognition The awareness of the individual of the way information is processed within him or her. It also pertains to knowing their strengths and weaknesses. This is very similar to metacognition.
Models of Information Processing Theory
There are various attempts to develop models of information processing. The two most popular are the multi-store model by Atkinson and Shiffrin and the working memory model by Baddeley and Hitch.
Atkinson and Shiffrin Model
John William Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed the multi-store model in 1968 to illustrate their view of human memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1977). The model shows the three subsections of human memory and how they work together.
So, what are the 3 stages of information processing? They are as follows:
- Sensory Memory It holds the information that the mind perceives through various senses such as visual, olfactory, or auditory information. These sense organs often receive a barrage of stimuli all the time. However, most are ignored and forgotten by the mind to prevent getting overwhelmed. When sensory information engages and gets the attention of the mind, it is transferred to short-term memory.
- Short-Term Memory (Working Memory) Information in short-term memory only lasts around 30 seconds. Cognitive abilities affect how individuals process information in working memory. Additionally, attention and focus on the most important information also play an important role in encoding it into long-term memory. Furthermore, repetition significantly helps the ability to remember details for a long time.
- Long-Term Memory It is thought that long-term memory has an unlimited amount of space as it can store memories from a long time ago to be retrieved at a later time. Various methods are used to store information in the long-term memory such as repetition, connecting information, relating information to meaningful experience or other information, and breaking up the information into smaller chunks.
Baddeley and Hitch Model of Working Memory
Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed the model of working memory back in 1974. They provided an in-depth understanding of the mind and how it processes information. Four more elements are added to further illustrate the information processing theory (Goldstein & Mackewn, 2005), namely:
- Central executive It is considered the control center of the mind where information processes are regulated between various memory stores. It controls and implements the cognitive processes that encode and retrieve information. Additionally, the central executive receives information from the visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and phonological loop. The frontal lobe of the brain is thought to house the central executive, as this is where all active decisions are processed.
- Phonological loop It works closely with the central executive and holds auditory information. Furthermore, it is composed of two sub-components: Phonological store It holds auditory information for a short period.Articulatory rehearsal process It stores the information for longer periods of time through rehearsal (Baddeley & Hitch, 2019).
- Phonological store It holds auditory information for a short period.
- Articulatory rehearsal process It stores the information for longer periods of time through rehearsal (Baddeley & Hitch, 2019).
- Visuospatial sketch pad It is considered another part of the central executive that holds spatial and visual information. It helps the mind imagine objects and maneuver through the environment.
- Episodic buffer Baddeley later added the fourth element of the model, which also holds information. It increases the capability of the mind to store information. He believed that the episodic buffer transfers information between short-term memory, perception, and long-term memory. As it is still relatively new, research is still conducted as to its specific mechanisms (Goldstein & Mackewn, 2005).
How Can Information Processing Theory Enhance Online Learning Environments?
By leveraging cognitive insights from information processing theory, online learning environments can be designed to minimize cognitive overload and streamline content delivery. Adaptive digital modules, optimized for efficient encoding and retrieval of information, enable educators to offer tailored learning experiences that adjust to individual processing speeds. Such environments support sequential information access and structured feedback, ensuring that learners progress through materials in a manner aligned with natural cognitive functions. Stakeholders aiming to enhance digital education can consider affordable online courses as part of their strategy to integrate theory-driven methodologies into practical e-learning frameworks.
What Are the Career and Research Opportunities Enabled by Information Processing Theory?
Recent studies indicate that scholarly and professional communities are increasingly integrating information processing insights to advance interdisciplinary research and practical innovations. Researchers in cognitive science, artificial intelligence, and human-computer interaction are collaborating to evaluate how memory models inform ethical data management and information security measures. Academic programs are evolving to merge rigorous theoretical frameworks with industry-specific applications, thereby expanding research opportunities and professional pathways. Students exploring specialized fields can review guidelines on college majors to align their academic pursuits with emerging market demands and interdisciplinary skill sets.
How Does Information Processing Theory Impact Career Certification and Skill Development?
By applying cognitive insights to professional training, Information Processing Theory informs the design of certification programs that optimize skill acquisition and retention. This approach aids in structuring learning modules to mirror natural cognitive patterns, thereby reducing cognitive overload and improving the assimilation of complex information. Evidence-based certification models built on these principles facilitate targeted competency development and support streamlined career advancement across specialized fields. Professionals can benefit from tailored educational pathways that integrate these cognitive strategies, such as certifications that pay well, to achieve measurable improvements in performance and competitive positioning.
How Can Information Processing Theory Shape High-Paying Careers?
Incorporating cognitive insights into professional development can streamline decision-making processes, enhance analytical capabilities, and foster innovative problem-solving skills that are highly valued in today's competitive job market. Advanced training programs designed with principles from information processing theory equip professionals with targeted competencies, enabling them to adapt to rapidly evolving technological environments. These strategic approaches not only improve performance but also open pathways to lucrative career opportunities, as evidenced by the increasing demand for expertise aligned with degrees that pay $100k.
How Can Information Processing Theory Support Lifelong Learning and Rapid Career Development?
Research in information processing theory offers a framework for designing learning strategies that extend well beyond traditional academic settings. By tailoring educational endeavors to match individual cognitive processing styles, professionals can systematically enhance their skills and adapt to emerging industry challenges. These insights enable the creation of personalized development pathways that combine efficient content delivery with practical competency-building. For example, structured programs leveraging these principles can offer condensed yet rigorous curricula, such as an accelerated associate degree online, which aligns with the demands of a dynamic career environment.
What Are the Ethical Implications of Information Processing in the Digital Age?
Information processing theory not only illuminates cognitive functions but also raises critical ethical questions regarding data handling, privacy, and algorithmic bias. This section examines how the application of cognitive insights in digital environments impacts individual privacy and organizational accountability. Researchers and practitioners must consider how information is captured, managed, and utilized while adhering to ethical standards and data protection regulations. Organizations integrating these principles into digital platforms are challenged with designing systems that balance innovation with the need for transparency and fairness. In this context, evaluating risks such as misuse of sensitive information and unintended behavioral manipulation is paramount. Stakeholders planning to advance their expertise in digital ethics and data management might explore the best online degrees to get to gain comprehensive insights into the intersection of technology, psychology, and ethics.
How Does Information Processing Theory Compare with Alternative Cognitive Theories?
Information Processing Theory emphasizes sequential encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in a manner similar to computer processing. In contrast, alternative cognitive theories, such as connectionism and constructivism, highlight network-based learning and the active construction of meaning, respectively. These comparisons reveal that while Information Processing Theory offers clear frameworks for understanding memory stages, other models delve deeper into parallel processing, adaptive learning, and context-dependent cognition. Evaluating these distinctions supports professionals and educators in selecting methodologies that align with specific objectives, whether in digital education, artificial intelligence applications, or organizational training initiatives. Such comparative insights also inform academic and career decisions, enabling learners to pursue programs aligned with the demands of the modern market, such as highest paid majors.
Limitations of Information Processing Theory
Just like any theory, the information processing theory has its limitations. While the presented models adequately describe how information is processed, several issues arise as well:
Analogy Between Computer and Human is Limited
The information processing theory likens the mind to a computer due to the following aspects:
- Combining or connecting new information with stored information reveals new information that can provide solutions to various problems.
- A computer has a central processing unit which has limited computing power. Similarly, the central executive in humans has a limited capacity that affects the human attentional system.
One of the obvious limitations of this analogy is the capacity of the human brain to store information that is on the order of 108432 bits. That means the capacity of human memory is excessively better than a computer’s (Wang, Liu, & Wang, 2003). This quantity gap between a computer and a human brain means the latter can accommodate processes that the former simply cannot, forming the idea behind the information processing theory of intelligence. Also, the analogy also does not consider the motivational and emotional factors that affect a human’s cognition.
The Models Assume Serial Processing
Existing models of information processing theory assume serial processing, which means one process needs to be completed before the next process begins. This is very similar to how a computer functions, hence the analogy.
However, the mind is capable of parallel processing, which means the simultaneous processing of various inputs with varying quality (Laberge & Samuels, 1974). Such ability of the human brain depends on the processes needed to accomplish a task and/or the amount of practice and the ability of the individual.
For example, a touch typist is able to read passages while typing them on the keyboard. On the other hand, a novice typist would focus on a letter or a word at a time.
Organizational Benefits of Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory can be extended beyond individuals. Just like a human mind, an organization is also an entity that processes information as part of its critical functionalities. As such, the concepts in the information processing theory can be applied to organizations.
There are four primary stages of processing information in organizations which usually, but not always, occur in order (Kmetz, 2020):
- Acquisition or retrieval Individuals in the organization receive or seek information. The source of information can come from within the organization, such as knowledge base, experts, or even performance review comments from employees. It can contain tutorials and answers to common questions like “Is to whom it may concern capitalized or not in a letter?" The information can also originate from outside the organization through other entities, third-party experts, and more.
- Storage It may initially occur in the individuals’ memories. Storing may also occur in other media such as computers, databases, or servers. Storing is a crucial part of the entire information processing workflow so that other members of the organization can access the information when needed. It is also important for learning as the organization can learn from its past experiences through the stored information.
- Transformation It happens when individuals modify or transform information that is received or in storage. This may include analysis, expansion, or compression that will help them in decision-making. Transforming can include extracting or deriving result from new information.
- Transmission The information from one of the first three stages are distributed to others. It may include reporting or presenting to relevant stakeholders.
By understanding how information is processed in a task, organizations can reduce uncertainty. The greater the uncertainty, the more information needs to be processed by the decision-makers in order to fully execute the task and understand its implications (Galbraith, 1974). On the other hand, when enough information related to the task is processed, it becomes well understood even before its execution. As such, many of its steps can be preplanned, which improves efficiency, resource management, and change management. Furthermore, relevant strategies can be formulated to take advantage of opportunities and minimize potential issues.
Such examples are knowledge-intensive activities in global organizations. An in-depth understanding of information processing allows organizations to expand such activities to members across different locations. They can then examine various stages of information processing and understand the importance and effects of various factors, such as customers’ needs, task commoditization, and collaborative technologies (Chen & Lin, 2016). Then, the organization can design the most effective dispersion of activities that will maximize human and other resources.
Practical Applications of Information Processing Theory
Information Processing Theory (IPT) focuses on how humans take in, process, store, and retrieve information. It compares the human mind to a computer and is commonly applied in various fields, especially education and cognitive psychology. Here are some practical applications of Information Processing Theory:
1. Education and Learning Strategies
- Cognitive Load Management: IPT can help educators structure content to avoid overwhelming students, enabling them to process and retain new information better. By breaking information into chunks and minimizing extraneous information, teachers can reduce cognitive overload.
- Active Learning: Using strategies such as summarizing, questioning, and self-testing engages deeper processing of information, enhancing comprehension and long-term memory.
- Use of Mnemonics: Mnemonics and memory aids such as acronyms, visualization techniques, and storytelling are rooted in IPT, helping learners organize and recall information more effectively.
- Scaffolding: Instructional scaffolding, where students receive support until they can perform tasks independently, is an application of IPT that recognizes how working memory can only handle limited information at once.
2. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
IPT is foundational to CBT, which uses the understanding of information processing in the brain to help individuals reframe and challenge negative thoughts. By changing how people interpret and process information, CBT aims to improve emotional and behavioral responses.
3. User Experience (UX) and Design
- Usability Design: In software development and website design, IPT guides how information is presented. User interfaces are designed to minimize the cognitive load, ensuring that information is processed efficiently and intuitively.
- Human-Computer Interaction (HCI): When creating systems, designers account for how users perceive, store, and retrieve information. Clear navigation, familiar structures, and simple designs improve the information processing efficiency of users.
4. Training and Skill Development
- Simulations and Practice: In fields such as aviation or medicine, IPT informs the use of simulations to help trainees process real-world information quickly. This enhances problem-solving and decision-making skills in high-pressure environments.
- Incremental Learning: Training programs that are progressive in complexity ensure that learners build upon previous knowledge without overwhelming their cognitive processing capacities.
5. Marketing and Advertising
- Attention and Recall: Understanding how consumers process and remember information helps marketers design messages that capture attention, are easy to understand, and memorable. Simple, repeated, and visually appealing content aligns with how information is processed in short-term and long-term memory.
- Decision Making: Marketers use IPT to influence decision-making by reducing the cognitive load of consumers. Clear, concise messages and minimal choices make it easier for people to process information and make decisions.
6. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
- Modeling Human Thought: In AI, Information Processing Theory provides insights into developing systems that mimic human thinking processes. Machine learning algorithms are designed to process and analyze vast amounts of data in ways that simulate human information processing, especially in fields like natural language processing (NLP).
Future Implications of Information Processing Theory in Education
Emerging research in information processing theory underscores its transformative potential in the realm of education, particularly in the development of personalized learning systems. With advancements in artificial intelligence and adaptive technologies, educational platforms are leveraging theoretical insights to create tailored experiences for diverse learners. For instance, by analyzing how students process, encode, and retrieve information, educators can design curricula that accommodate different cognitive styles and optimize learning outcomes.
Moreover, this theory can contribute significantly to enhancing online education frameworks. By aligning content delivery mechanisms with the principles of information processing, platforms can improve student engagement and retention rates. For individuals or educators seeking to deepen their understanding of these advancements, pursuing academic qualifications in this domain can be invaluable. Institutions now offer numerous flexible and accessible options, such as top-tier online education degree programs, to equip learners with modern pedagogical tools and knowledge.
The integration of information processing theory into educational technology also holds promise for bridging gaps in digital literacy. By fostering cognitive skills and efficient information management practices, educators can better prepare students for dynamic environments that demand quick adaptation and decision-making. As global educational systems increasingly embrace these methodologies, further research is vital to harness the full potential of information processing theory in fostering lifelong learning.
Information Processing Theory and Its Current Areas of Research
Information processing theory is currently being used in various industries, areas of study, and technology careers. Beyond the individual, the concepts, models, and ideas in information processing are being applied to various entities such as:
- Business Information processing theory has been used to describe organizational behavior (an example is discussed in the previous section). For example, various models are used to understand how businesses utilize market information, how they decide which information is relevant or important, and how it affects their long-term strategies (Rogers, Miller, & Judge, 1999).
- Family unit The theory is used to understand family systems that include attending, sensing, and encoding of stimuli within the family as a whole or the individuals. A family unit then develops mutual and individual schemes that affect how information is processed and attended to. The schemes can be examined to describe family dynamics, culture, and relationships (Ariel, 1987).
- Artificial intelligence (AI) Information processing theory was developed in cognitive psychology and the desire of scientists and experts to understand how the human mind works. AI studies aim to understand human cognition and replicate the processes in machines such as natural language processing, memory encoding, information retrieval, learning, and more (Langley, 2016).
As the interest in how the human mind works expands, so does the application of information processing theory. Furthermore, it improves the understanding of how various entities from individuals to entire organizations deal with information. Consequently, new models, ideas, and concepts are developed under various contexts, with information processing theory serving as their core. Learners who wish to know more about these can take on-ground or online degrees in psychology.
Key Insights
- Information Processing Theory Fundamentals: The theory explains how humans encode, store, and retrieve information, likening the brain to a computer. This process impacts individual motivation and behavior, which in turn influences societal dynamics.
- Key Contributors and Models: George Armitage Miller, John William Atkinson, Richard Shiffrin, Alan Baddeley, and Graham Hitch are significant contributors to the theory. Key models include the multi-store model and the working memory model, which detail different stages and elements of memory processing.
- Cognitive Processes and Memory Stores: The theory identifies various memory stores such as sensory, short-term, and long-term memory, and cognitive processes like perception, coding, recording, and retrieval that transfer information between these stores.
- Practical Applications and Organizational Benefits: Beyond individual cognition, the theory is applied to organizational behavior, enhancing decision-making, efficiency, and resource management. It helps organizations reduce uncertainty and improve strategic planning.
- Limitations of the Theory: The analogy between the human brain and a computer has limitations, particularly regarding the brain's capacity for parallel processing and its emotional and motivational factors, which are not accounted for in computer models.
- Current Research and Applications: Information processing theory is utilized in various fields, including business, family systems, and artificial intelligence, demonstrating its wide-ranging relevance and applicability.
References:
- Ariel, S. (1987). An information processing theory of family dysfunction. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 24 (3S), 477-495. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0085745
- Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1977). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. Human Memory, 7-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-121050-2.50006-5
- Baddeley, A. (2006). Working Memory. In S. Pickering (Ed.), Working Memory and Education, 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012554465-8/50003-x
- Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (2019). The phonological loop as a buffer store: An update. Cortex, 112, 91-106. https://doi.org10.1016/j.cortex.2018.05.015
- Chen, S., & Lin, N. (2016). Global dispersion of offshore service providers: An information processing perspective. Journal of Knowledge Management, 20 (5), 1065-1082. https://doi.org/10.1108/jkm-11-2015-0449
- Galbraith, J. R. (1974). Organization Design: An Information Processing View. Interfaces, 4 (3), 28-36. https://doi.org/10.1287/inte.4.3.28
- Goldstein, E. B., & Mackewn, A. (2005). Cognitive Psychology Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. Google Books
- Hann, I., Hui, K., Lee, S. T., & Png, I. P. (2007). Overcoming online information privacy concerns: an information-processing theory approach. Journal of Management Information Systems, 24 (2), 13-42. https://doi.org/10.2753/mis0742-1222240202
- Kmetz, J. L. (2020). Information Processing Theory of Organization: Managing Technology Accession in Complex Systems. Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Routledge. Google Books
- Laberge, D., & Samuels, S. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6 (2), 293-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(74)90015-2
- Langley, P. (2016). The central role of cognition in learning. Advances in Cognitive Systems, 4. Semantic Scholar
- Rogers, P. R., Miller, A., & Judge, W. Q. (1999). Using information-processing theory to understand planning/performance relationships in the context of strategy. Strategic Management Journal, 20 (6), 567-577. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0266(199906)20:63.0.co;2-k.
- Sala, S. D. (2007). Tall Tales About the Mind and Brain: Separating Fact from Fiction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. PsycNet
- Wang, Y., Liu, D., & Wang, Y. (2003). Discovering the capacity of human memory. Brain and Mind, 4, 89198. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025405628479
- Çeliköz, N., Erisen, Y., & Sahin, M. (2019). Cognitive learning theories with emphasis on latent learning, Gestalt and information processing theories. Journal of Educational and Instructional Studies in the World, 9 (3). ERIC
Other Things You Should Know About Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory is a cognitive development approach that explains how humans encode, store, and retrieve information. It likens the brain to a computer, capable of analyzing information received from the environment and influencing individual behavior and societal dynamics.
The key contributors to information processing theory include George Armitage Miller, John William Atkinson, Richard Shiffrin, Alan Baddeley, and Graham Hitch. Their work has led to the development of fundamental models such as the multi-store model and the working memory model.
The main elements of information processing theory include information stores (sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory), cognitive processes (perception, coding, recording, chunking, retrieval), and executive cognition (awareness of information processing strengths and weaknesses).
Information processing theory benefits organizations by improving decision-making, efficiency, and resource management. It helps organizations reduce uncertainty and formulate strategies to take advantage of opportunities and minimize potential issues, enhancing overall organizational performance.
The limitations of information processing theory include the analogy between the human brain and a computer, which overlooks the brain's capacity for parallel processing and its emotional and motivational factors. Additionally, existing models often assume serial processing, which does not fully capture the brain's simultaneous processing abilities.
Information processing theory is applied in various fields such as business, family systems, and artificial intelligence. It helps understand organizational behavior, family dynamics, and human cognition, contributing to the development of new models, ideas, and concepts in these areas.
The multi-store model by Atkinson and Shiffrin and the working memory model by Baddeley and Hitch are significant as they detail different stages and elements of memory processing. These models help explain how information is stored, processed, and retrieved, providing a foundation for understanding cognitive development and functioning.
